The Periodization of Influence and Power in Varuna-Dvipa/Borneo/Kalimantan Through the Ages : 4th – 21st Century AD
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| The Periodization of Influence and Power in Varuna-Dvipa/Borneo/Kalimantan Through the Ages. Illustration: The author. |
🌍 DAYAK TODAY | PONTIANAK: History, as it is often said, is written by those who leave records. But for Borneo —an island spanning 743,330 square kilometers, the third largest on Earth— its past before the 4th century AD remains an enigma.
No known inscriptions, artifacts, or textual evidence have surfaced to illuminate its prehistoric existence. The absence of such materials leaves historians and archaeologists grappling with speculation rather than concrete narratives.
Attempts to reconstruct Borneo’s early history, notably by scholars like Robert Blust and Peter Bellwood, have provided significant insights into Austronesian migration and linguistic patterns. Yet, these studies —valuable though they are— fall short of establishing a definitive chronology of influence and dominion over the island. Without a synthesis of archaeological, anthropological, and historical textual evidence, Borneo’s earliest epochs remain an open question.
4th – 12th Century AD: The Hindu-Indian Imprint
The first definitive wave of external influence on Borneo came with the arrival of Hindu civilization from the Indian subcontinent. At the forefront of this cultural infusion was the Kingdom of Kutai Martadipura, situated in present-day East Borneo. Regarded as Indonesia’s oldest Hindu kingdom, Kutai provides the earliest known written record of political and religious structures on the island.
The most compelling testimony to Kutai’s existence comes from the Yupa inscriptions—seven ancient stone monoliths etched in Pallava script and Sanskrit (Liputan6, 2023). Dating back to the 4th century, these inscriptions chronicle the royal lineage of Kutai’s rulers and their patronage of Brahmanical priests (Coedès, 1968). More than just remnants of a distant past, these inscriptions serve as Borneo’s first bridge from an undocumented prehistory to an era of recorded civilization.
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One of the most pivotal figures in the history of Kutai was Kudungga, initially regarded as a local chieftain before the arrival of Hindu-Indian influences reshaped the region’s political landscape into a kingdom.
The Yupa inscriptions document Kudungga’s lineage, including Aswawarman, who is widely recognized as the first Hindu ruler of Kutai. He is referred to as Wangsakerta, or the founder of the royal dynasty (Munoz, 2006). Trade relations with India introduced a wide array of Hindu-Buddhist cultural elements, including the caste system, beliefs in karma and reincarnation, and intricate religious rituals (Kompas, 2020).
Beyond Kutai, traces of Hindu influence can be found in other parts of Borneo, though not to the same extent as in Java or Sumatra. Archaeological evidence reveals the presence of Hindu-Buddhist religious centers that once flourished deep in the island’s interior, particularly along major river networks that served as vital trade arteries.
Inscriptions from the period indicate that Brahmins held a dominant role in both religious and political affairs, shaping the social fabric of Kutai society (Jurnal FKIP Unmul, 2021).
The Rise of Islam: 13th to 21st Century
Islam made its way to Borneo through merchants and traveling preachers —ulama and Sufi scholars— who arrived directly from the Middle East. The early spread of Islam was largely facilitated by trade, as Muslim merchants engaged with local communities, gradually introducing Islamic principles and way of life. One of the first kingdoms to embrace Islam was Kutai Kartanegara.
Kutai Kartanegara began its transition to Islam under the reign of Aji Raja Mahkota Mulia Alam, who ruled between 1545 and 1610. He formally converted to Islam in 1575, making him the first Muslim ruler of Kutai Kartanegara (Kompas, 2022).
This conversion was significantly influenced by the arrival of Tuan Tunggang Parangan, a prominent Islamic scholar who played a key role in spreading the faith in the region during the 16th century. His teachings were warmly received by the king, who then embraced Islam.
More than a century later, the royal title was officially changed from raja to sultan, with Sultan Aji Muhammad Idris—who ruled from approximately 1735 to 1778—becoming the first to bear this designation (Republika, 2023).
Beyond Kutai, the Banjar Sultanate played a crucial role in the expansion of Islam across Borneo. Founded by Prince Samudera in the 16th century, the sultanate emerged as a religious and political powerhouse after the prince converted to Islam, adopting the name Sultan Suriansyah.
Banjar soon became the epicenter of Islamic dissemination, influencing communities across Central, East, and West Borneo. This transformation reshaped legal, social, and economic structures, embedding Islamic values into the region’s governance and daily life (Jurnal Khazanah, 2020).
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Islamic influence continued to grow well into the colonial era, as Muslim sultans and local leaders spearheaded resistance against Dutch rule.
By the 20th century, Islam had become deeply ingrained in Bornean society, reinforced by the rise of religious organizations and Islamic educational institutions, which played a critical role in solidifying the region’s Muslim identity (Kalteng Online, 2023).
21st Century – The Resurgence of Dayak and Christian/Catholic Identity
As the 21st century unfolds, the Dayak people are experiencing a powerful resurgence of their cultural and religious identity, marked by a growing number of Dayaks embracing Christianity and Catholicism.
The spread of Christianity in Borneo dates back to the 19th century, when Catholic and Protestant missionaries ventured deep into the island’s interior.
Capuchin and Jesuit missionaries played a pivotal role in establishing churches, schools, and religious institutions that would later become pillars of education for the Dayak community (UIN Antasari Journal, 2020).
Beyond religious factors, the Dayak people are becoming increasingly aware of their political and economic rights. Many Dayak leaders now hold influential positions in government and key organizations. A cultural revival is also underway, with indigenous laws, artistic expressions, and social systems rooted in Dayak values gaining renewed recognition and respect (Archipelago, 2023).
Economically, the Dayak community is building strength through cooperative movements and community-driven enterprises.
Credit unions like Keling Kumang (CUKK) in West Kalimantan have significantly improved the economic well-being of many Dayak families. With better access to education and greater political participation, the Dayak people continue to push for broader recognition in government policies and stronger protections for their ancestral lands and forests.
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The revitalization of Dayak traditions is also evident in the preservation of their art and cultural heritage. Dayak tattoos, traditional ceremonies, and intricate handwoven textiles are seeing a revival, as younger generations embrace their roots through festivals and cultural initiatives.
The Indigenous Awakening
For centuries, Borneo has been a crucible of cultures, a land where civilizations converge, religions clash and coexist, and identities are continuously reshaped.
Once a vast, untamed rainforest, this island—one of the world’s largest—has been a silent witness to the grand narratives of history, from the early Hindu-Buddhist influences to the dominance of Islam, and now, the resurgence of the indigenous Dayak identity.
Borneo's strategic position in Southeast Asia has made it an arena for cultural and economic exchanges dating back over a millennium. Indian merchants, Chinese traders, and later, European colonizers all left their imprint. Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms flourished here as early as the 5th century, evidenced by ancient inscriptions and artifacts scattered across the island. Temples, forgotten by time, whisper tales of a past where gods and kings ruled the land.
By the 13th century, however, Islam emerged as the dominant force, brought by traders from the Middle East and the Malay Peninsula. The once-powerful Hindu-Buddhist realms gave way to the rise of Islamic sultanates, marking a turning point in Borneo’s history. Yet, beneath these waves of transformation, the indigenous Dayak peoples—Borneo’s original inhabitants—remained resilient, preserving their traditions, rituals, and deep spiritual connection to the land.
The Indigenous Awakening
For centuries, the Dayak were marginalized in their own homeland, labeled as 'tribals' and 'backward' by colonial powers and the ruling elites. But the tides are turning. In recent decades, a powerful movement has emerged—one that seeks not only to reclaim the Dayak’s place in history but also to secure their rights in the face of modern challenges.
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Deforestation, palm oil plantations, and large-scale mining projects have threatened their ancestral lands, sparking waves of resistance. Indigenous voices, once subdued, now echo through national and international forums, demanding recognition, justice, and self-determination. This growing consciousness is not just a cultural revival—it is a political statement.
As Borneo moves deeper into the 21st century, its political and social dynamics continue to evolve. The rise of Dayak representation in government, the establishment of indigenous-led organizations, and the push for land rights reflect a new era of empowerment. Institutions of education and religion are playing a pivotal role in shaping this transformation, redefining the very structure of authority that has long dictated the island’s destiny.
Christianity, which gained a stronghold among the Dayak communities during the colonial era, has become a crucial part of this awakening, fueling discourses on justice and equality. Meanwhile, universities and research centers are documenting Dayak history, bridging the gap between oral traditions and written records.
Borneo is no longer just an exotic island portrayed in adventure books. It is a land in flux, where history and modernity collide, where identities are renegotiated, and where a people long overshadowed are finally stepping into the light.
The story of Borneo is far from over—it is being rewritten, in the voices of those who refuse to be forgotten.
Researcher: Rangkaya Bada
Author: Masri Sareb Putra, M.A.
References
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